T for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
antioxidantsReviewThe Plasma Membrane: A Platform for Intra- and Intercellular Redox SignalingDaniela E. Nordzieke 1, and Iria Medra -Fernandez two, 1Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Genetics of Eukaryotic Microorganisms, Georg August University G tingen, Grisebachstr. eight, D-37077 G tingen, Germany Protein Transport and Secretion Unit, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Ospedale San Raffaele, UniversitVita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy Correspondence: [email protected] (D.E.N.); [email protected] (I.M.-F.); Tel.: +49-551-393-3579 (D.E.N.); +39-226-434-737 (I.M.-F.)Received: 31 October 2018; Accepted: 17 November 2018; Published: 20 NovemberAbstract: Membranes are of outmost value to enable for certain signal transduction as a result of their capability to localize, amplify, and direct signals. Even so, due to the double-edged nature of reactive oxygen species (ROS)–toxic at higher concentrations but critical signal molecules–subcellular localization of ROS-producing Influenza Non-Structural Protein 2 Proteins Storage & Stability systems to the plasma membrane has been traditionally regarded as a protective strategy to defend cells from unwanted side-effects. Nonetheless, specialized regions, for example lipid rafts and caveolae, house and regulate the activated/inhibited states of important ROS-producing systems and concentrate redox targets, demonstrating that plasma membrane functions might go beyond acting as a securing lipid barrier. This can be nicely evinced by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-oxidases (NOX), enzymes whose main function should be to generate ROS and which have already been shown to reside in precise lipid compartments. Additionally, membrane-inserted bidirectional H2 O2 -transporters modulate their DNA topoisomerase II Proteins Biological Activity conductance precisely in the course of the passage from the molecules by way of the lipid bilayer, guaranteeing time-scaled delivery with the signal. This overview aims to summarize existing proof supporting the function on the plasma membrane as an organizing center that serves as a platform for redox signal transmission, particularly NOX-driven, delivering specificity at the very same time that limits undesirable oxidative harm in case of malfunction. As an instance of malfunction, we discover several pathological scenarios in which an inflammatory component is present, which include inflammatory bowel illness and neurodegenerative problems, to illustrate how dysregulation of plasma-membrane-localized redox signaling impacts normal cell physiology. Keyword phrases: plasma membrane; redox signaling; lipid rafts; NADPH oxidase; aquaporin; redoxosome; inflammation; inflammatory bowel illness; neurodegenerative disorders1. Introduction When wanting to the world surrounding us, it becomes quite clear that animals and plants are adapted for the certain conditions with the habitats in which they live. Therefore, Emperor penguins have 4 layers of scale-like feathers that isolate them from the cold Antarctic wind, along with the Saguaro cactus’s spines point down to conduct into its folds and its base the rare rain that falls within the Sonoran Desert. These adaptations, developed more than billions of years and collectively defined as evolution, are preceded by parallel slow alterations in the cellular level. However, the extracellular atmosphere isn’t static by way of time. Composed by numerous elements and varying even from minute to minute, ce.